1.4 What Is Communication?

The sourceThe person who imagines, creates, and sends the message. imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new information with the audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her tone of voice, body language, and choice of clothing. The speaker begins by first determining the message—what to say and how to say it. The second step involves encoding the message by choosing just the right order or the perfect words to convey the intended meaning. The third step is to present or send the information to the receiver or audience. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well it received the message and responds with clarification or supporting information.

It is important to note that the source brings his or her own cultural background to the conversation or interaction. An awareness of your own cultural background, customs, and values is key to intercultural communication. When we fail to take into account our own styles of communication, which are themselves culturally bound, we can quickly arrive at moments of conflict within an intercultural setting, sometimes with disastrous results.

Soldiers returning from Afghanistan and Iraq have commented on one example that should never be lost or forgotten. When a US solider indicates to an Afghan or Iraqi citizen to stop by holding up their hand, palm out, the intention is to communicate the command “Stop.” From a local perspective, it can be misinterpreted as “Come here,” and this misunderstanding led to several deaths before the lesson was learned.

The messageThe stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience. is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience. When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may seem to be only the words you choose that will convey your meaning. But that is just the beginning. The words are brought together with grammar, organization, and cultural context. It is important to consider the cultural context and what is important to your audience or conversational partner.

The message also consists of the way you say it—in a speech, with your tone of voice, your body language, and your appearance, and in a report, with your writing style, punctuation, and the headings and formatting you choose. In addition, part of the message may be the environment or context you present it in, as well as the noise that might make your message hard to hear or see.

Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are aware there is a World Series game tonight. Some members of your audience might have a hard time settling down because the competition is culturally relevant to them. Some may even plan on following it on their smartphones during your presentation. Acknowledging the importance of the World Series can create common ground. Opening with “I understand there is an important game tonight” can gain attention that you can then redirect to your topic or message. In this way, by expressing verbally something that most people in your audience are aware of and interested in, you might grasp and focus their attention.

Let’s extend the example and consider the World Series (baseball), the World Cup (soccer), and the Super Bowl (football). Baseball is a sport appreciated by many in North America as well as Japan, but soccer is followed by many more people, across languages and cultures worldwide. That said, the media have made our world shrink, and even people who otherwise may not watch the Super Bowl game itself may be familiar with the advertisements, well known for their humor. Each game represents an approach to interaction and involves distinct strategies and rules. The games we play, and the messages they represent, are reflections of our cultures.

The channelThe way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver. is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver. For example, think of your television. How many channels do you have on your television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the cable or in the signal that brings the message of each channel to your home. Television combines an audio signal you hear with a visual signal you see. Together they convey the message to the receiver or audience. Turn off the volume on your television. Can you still understand what is happening? Many times you can, because the body language conveys part of the message of the show. Now turn up the volume but turn around so that you cannot see the television. You can still hear the dialogue and follow the story line.

Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message. Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations and voicemail messages, radio, public address systems, and Voice over Internet protocol (VoIP). Written channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth. The channels we use to interact reflect our cultures.

It is important to note that not all channels are used in the same way across languages or cultures. Younger people may view text messages as the equivalent of the spoken word, in the same way that a person who grew up without this channel might view a face-to-face conversation. There are also cultural norms, including ways we use specific channels, within organizations and between coworkers. It may be appropriate to send an instant message (IM) to someone within your company, or IMs may not be allowed at all.

We also need to consider the issue that we often view channels in terms of technology that may not be universally accessible. For example, we could discuss how we view the use of a text message versus an e-mail versus a phone call versus an in-person meeting, but when we look more closely we may find that some of the channels are not available in all locations or cultures. While cell phones are increasingly common in places that still lack clean running water, access to the Internet and its wealth of information may not be. In the same way, we need to consider that the use of technology and the skills associated with it are not universal. Many homes worldwide do not have computers, and not all young people have the technological skills to use one if available. When we consider schools or libraries as places where computers may be more accessible, we have to consider that not everyone even has access to schools or libraries. The school down the road might stop at fourth grade; there may be no library; and in some cultures, if you are female, you may not be encouraged to go beyond a basic elementary education. Channels are how we communicate the message between source and receiver, and awareness of their limitations and advantages is an important part of effective intercultural communication.

The receiverThe person or audience who receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source. receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source. To better understand this component, think of a receiver on a North American football team. The quarterback throws the football (message) to a receiver, who must see and interpret where to catch the ball. The quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch” his message in one way, but the receiver may see things differently and miss the football (the intended meaning) altogether.

Receivers listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your audience “sizes you up,” much as you might check them out long before you take the stage or open your mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues on how to adjust your opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what you would look for if you were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the receiver will be in order to place the ball correctly, you too can recognize the interaction between source and receiver in a business communication context. Remember that the receiver, like the source, views all communication interactions through his or her own set of “cultural eyeglasses,” which shape and influence the message and how is received. The example of a quarterback and a receiver may be lost on someone who is not familiar with North American football, and an example that draws from a more universal football, also called soccer, may help you make your point. All this happens at the same time, illustrating why and how communication is always changing.

When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving feedback. FeedbackThe verbal and/or nonverbal response to a message. is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or nonverbal, all these feedback signals allow the source to see how well and how accurately (or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. Feedback also provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of communication also increases.

To continue our example, suppose again that you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with four sales reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that it is World Series season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear. You state your message, but you hear no replies from your listeners. You might assume that this means they understood and agreed with you, but later in the month, you might be disappointed to find that very few sales were made. If you followed up your message with a request for feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of you have any questions?”), you might have had an opportunity to clarify your message and to find out whether any of the sales reps believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.

Remember that feedback as an aspect of communication comes in many forms and once again is bound by cultural norms. A child who listens to an adult in one culture may be expected to look them in the eye to respectfully demonstrate listening, while in another culture that same gesture or action may be perceived as defiant or rude. Managers across cultures also vary in their expectation of feedback from their employees. Learning how people give feedback is as important as the feedback itself, and feedback is critical to effective intercultural communication.

The environmentInvolves the physical and psychological aspects of the communication context. is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and receive messages. The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress that may indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and formal. People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are physically close to each other and less likely when they can only see each other from across the room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form of communication. The choice to text is influenced by the environment. As a speaker, for example, your environment will impact and play a role in your presentation.

Culture is a part of us and our environment. How we arrange the chairs, who sits where, and the psychological aspects of our environment are all variables that have different meanings depending on who is part of the conversation. For example, in China the first foreigner to enter a room is expected to be the highest ranking member of the group. He or she will be seated accordingly. Should a subordinate enter first, it would cause confusion and miscommunication and demonstrate a lack of preparation and cultural sensitivity. If you are holding a business meeting and the participants represent several groups, organizations, or cultures, the time invested in researching how the environment will influence and impact communication could produce results that make it all worthwhile.

The contextInvolves the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved in communication. of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved. A professional communication context may involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence expectations of language and behavior among the participants.

Communication interaction does not take place as an isolated event. When you came to class, you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the instructor. The degree to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the contextual expectations for communication held by the participants. The person sitting next to you may be used to informal communication with instructors, but this particular instructor may be used to verbal and nonverbal displays of respect in the academic environment. You may be used to formal interactions with instructors as well and find your classmate’s question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework today?” as rude and inconsiderate when your classmate sees it as normal. The nonverbal response from the instructor will certainly give you a clue about how he or she perceives the interaction, in terms of both the chosen words and how they were said.

Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those expectations out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or quinceañeras are often formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time for silence as the bride walks down the aisle, and the father may have the first dance with his daughter as she is transformed from a girl to a woman in the eyes of her community. In either celebration, there may come a time for rambunctious celebration and dancing. You may be called on to give a toast, and the wedding or quinceañera context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.

In a business meeting, who speaks first? The answer probably has some relation to the position and role each person has outside the meeting. For example, in China, the highest ranking members of a group are expected to speak, while subordinates remain silent. Subordinates who take a conversational turn—or worse, interrupt—are considered quite rude and may jeopardize the negotiation or meeting. Context plays a very important role in communication, particularly across cultures.

Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. InterferenceAnything that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message. is anything that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message. For example, if you drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns, billboards, or perhaps the radio in your car interrupted your thoughts or your conversation with a passenger.

Psychological noise is what happens when your thoughts occupy your attention while you are hearing, or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and your boss, who is at a meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s sales figures, an analysis of current sales projections, and the sales figures from the same month for the past five years. You may open the e-mail, start to read, and think, “Great—no problem—I have those figures and that analysis right here in my computer.” You fire off a reply with last month’s sales figures and the current projections attached. Then at 5:00, you turn off your computer and go home. The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to tell you he was inconvenienced because you neglected to include the sales figures from the previous years. What was the problem? Interference—by thinking about how you wanted to respond to your boss’s message, you prevented yourself from reading attentively enough to understand the whole message.

Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your attention to your current situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office is hot and stuffy. If you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech, how could this impact your ability to listen and participate?

Noise interferes with the normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the channel between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the communication process. For example, your cell phone ringtone may be a welcome noise to you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and bother your classmates. It can also cause you a lot of embarrassment.

Imagine listening to the New York Philharmonic orchestra play Mahler’s Ninth Symphony, described by the conductor Alan Gilbert as containing “some of the most spiritual and peaceful music ever written.” As the symphony moves to the closing movement, a spectator’s cell phone rings, and rings, and does not stop. You would be annoyed or frustrated. You purchased tickets to this performance and your enjoyment was interrupted by someone who failed to follow Gilbert’s preconcert request to silence all cell phones. Concerts, like libraries, have understood rules about silence. In all cultures, who speaks when is culturally bound, and interruptions are subject to informal and formal norms. In some contexts, overlapping speech is tolerated, but in most contexts, one should think twice before talking over another person. It is often considered rude. In this case, it was considered the height of rudeness, and Gilbert stopped the performance cold. He turned and asked the audience member to silence his phone. The members of the audience were furious, the phone was silenced, and the performance resumed. Violating social customs and norms, and producing interference when it is not culturally appropriate, can damage your reputation and even lead to risk of personal harm.