1.5 What Is Democracy?

Democracy is rule by the people. The idea comes from the Athenian Greeks, who thought of democracy as self-government in which citizens gathered in face-to-face forums, debated, and voted directly on legislation. Democracy is an ideal in which the governed actively participate in a government that represents the people, such that its actions are determined by their involvement and it produces policies that reflect their interests. In Abraham Lincoln’s words from his Gettysburg Address, democracy is “government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” To make matters somewhat confusing, democracy also refers to governments that fall considerably short of the ideal. For example, we note in Chapter 11 “The U.S. Congress: We Love Our Representative, but Not the Institution” that American democracy falls short of Lincoln’s “of the people” ideal given Congress’ underrepresentation of women, minorities, working class people, and certain religious groups. The degree to which the American government’s policies are reflective of the interests, needs, and desires of the people is a matter of debate, but most scholars agree the government falls somewhat short of this criterion. Many scholars argue that wide disparities evident today in material conditions among people are incompatible with democracy. Much of American political history, as you will learn, is a struggle to reach the ideals of democracy. In practice, perfectly democratic governments do not exist—and probably never will.

The Athenian Greeks practiced democracy directly in face-to-face forums. Some towns in New England still follow this method of governance, but geographically large nations with millions of citizens find direct democracy impractical on a day-to-day basis. In large societies, such as the United States, the people rule indirectly through representatives. To preserve the democratic ideal, all citizens should have an adequate and equal opportunity to express their preferences and have an equal voice in choosing their representatives in free and fair elections. It is important to note that this grant of authority from the people to their representatives is revocable when the representatives’ terms of office expire. This provision allows people to hold their leaders accountable for conduct in office. In theory, control of the representatives equates to control of government and puts the people in charge.

A major assumption behind democracy is that all people are equal. This sentiment is powerfully expressed in the second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.” Of course, when the country was founded, many members of Congress owned slaves, and women, Native Americans, and men without property were not allowed to vote in most states. While this ideal was not fully put into practice, the belief in equality among the American people has helped overcome practices that deviated from the democratic ideal. In the context of democracy, equality means that individuals should have the opportunity to fully develop their potential and, within the limits of decency and fairness to others, the opportunity to satisfy those interests they themselves deem important. Thus, with respect to collective decision-making, all votes are considered equal.

Making decisions based on unanimous consent is consistent with the principle of equal consideration, but in a large society unanimity is not feasible. Compromise is an important feature of democracy, with groups engaging in give and take to advance their agendas. As a practical matter, democracies normally make decisions on the basis of a majority vote, a rule that declares the greater number should determine the outcome. This decision rule necessarily means that the interests of the minority on any given vote or issue will not be satisfied, but consider that any feasible alternative to majority rule The principle that the greater number should exercise greater influence. permits a minority to decide.

In special circumstances, such as when Congress votes to propose an amendment to the Constitution (Chapter 2 “The Founding and the Constitution: Creating a Nation”) or to override a presidential veto (see Chapter 11 “The U.S. Congress: We Love Our Representative, but Not the Institution” and Chapter 12 “The President: Hoping for a Hero”), a supermajority The principle that more than half the total should determine the outcome of a vote. , or more than a majority vote, is required to determine the outcome. If the majority vote is a good rule, why isn’t a supermajority better? Why shouldn’t we insist on supermajorities on every vote? The answer is simply that supermajorities allow a minority to block the preference of the majority. Requiring supermajorities may be important when the Constitutional rights of the minority are at stake, but only majority rule maximizes the preferences of the entire electorate. Simply put, more citizens benefit more consistently under majority rule because fewer people lose. Keep in mind that majorities normally change depending on the issue. Thus, citizens who lose one issue have a reasonable expectation of being part of the majority and winning on the next issue.

Majority rule does not mean that democracies give majorities unlimited power. The Constitution protects the unalienable Rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” of the minority from the actions of the majority. Political liberty—the right to speak, write, assemble, and publish freely—are necessary conditions for democracy to exist. After all, how are majorities to be formed justly and challenged unless the people have unrestricted freedoms to propose, argue, persuade, and decide? It wouldn’t be a democracy if those in power could jail or otherwise silence their opponents. On the other hand, majorities and indeed all citizens have the responsibility to listen to the views of the minority and consider their wishes. This is also a necessary condition for democracy to exist.