1.2 The Communication Process

The transmission model of communicationDescribes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver. describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver. This model focuses on the sender and the message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. The scholars who designed this model expanded on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as radio.

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication. NoiseAnything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter. is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter. The transmission model of communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noisePhysical noise present in a communication encounter. is any physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded coffee shop could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully decoded. Although environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message, semantic noiseThe disruption that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when the participants do not understand a symbol. refers to the disruption that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol. For example, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also interfere with communication between people speaking the same language because many words have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication that we’ll discuss later. Although this model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions, there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially digital communication. Think of texting for example. The transmission model of communication is well suited for describing texting since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was effectively conveyed or that the message was received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use a vague or random emoji that the receiver can’t interpret or the phone autocorrects to something completely different from what you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission. 

The interaction model of communicationDescribes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication an interactive process. FeedbackMessages sent in response to other messages. includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where your phone is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver to keep a communication encounter going. 

The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. Although the transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical contextThe environmental factors in a communication encounter. includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how they may affect your communication. I’ve had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication.

Psychological contextThe mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic relationship, individuals may be so “love-struck” that they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that’s used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of the sender and the receiver, and the role of context.

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view, communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views communication as an interactive process through which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within physical and psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communicationDescribes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of the sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you’re done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you simultaneously send your verbal message and receive your date’s nonverbal messages. 

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. Although these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social contextThe stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we’re breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee, you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party, you’ll notice your error without someone having to point it out, and you’ll likely not deviate from the norm again to save yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in formal punishment, the awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are powerful. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model to help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational contextThe previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules. But when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and attentiveness and might spend hours cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your undivided attention during later visits. Aside from relationship history, relationship type is also included in the relational context. For example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does culture.

Cultural contextAspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability that influence communication. includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We’ll learn more about these identities in several parts of the book but for now, it’s important for us to understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural communication creates uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view intercultural communication as negative. But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you’ll likely not get more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Differences, as we’ll learn in Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication”, aren’t a bad thing. In fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various aspects of our lives. To communicate well within various cultural contexts, it’s important to keep an open mind and avoid making assumptions about others’ cultural identities. Although you may be able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a communication encounter, there may also be cultural influences that you can’t see. A competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all of the cultural contexts a person brings to an encounter since not all cultural identities are visible.