1.1 History and Approaches

By the mid-1800s, researchers in other sciences focused on the essential or most basic elements of their areas of study and built complexity from these components. For example, atoms make up molecules, cells make up tissue, and the laws of gravity help explain the movement of stars and planets. Understanding the complex human mind and the nature of consciousness by understanding the underlying components or structures was one of the first significant approaches to psychology. This way of thinking is called structuralism An approach to psychology that focuses on breaking down complex mental processes into their most basic components or structures. Most associated with Wilhelm Wundt. and was developed by German physiologist and philosopher Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). Many consider Wundt to be the father of experimental psychology. Founding the first psychology laboratory, he and his students created experimental methods to test human senses, perceptions, and memory both systematically and accurately (refer to Figure 1.3). The goal was to determine the fundamental units or building blocks of the human mind. Structuralism was the first attempt to apply the rigors of science to investigate mental processes.

Functionalism An approach to psychology that focuses on the functions behind behaviors and thoughts. Most associated with William James. was a school of thought about psychology and the human mind that focused on the function or purpose behind behaviors and thoughts. Functionalism was highly influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) theory of natural selection to explain the evolution of organisms. According to Darwin’s theories, organisms have biological or behavioral adaptations that serve the function of helping them survive and reproduce. While structuralism was about the fundamental components of the mind and behavior, functionalism was about the motives and ultimate usefulness that consciousness brings (refer to “Two Early Approaches: Structuralism and Functionalism”). William James (1842–1910) was the founder of functionalism and is considered the father of American psychology. James wrote several books on psychology, including the 1,200-page The Principles of Psychology (1890), and he often ranks at the top of lists of the most influential psychologists of all time (Korn, Davis, & Davis, 1991). 

There is probably no more iconic association with psychology than Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his psychoanalytic approach This approach to psychology was developed by Sigmund Freud and emphasizes developmental stages, the unconscious mind, repressed thoughts, and sexual and aggressive motivations. . Freud had many ideas on child development, personality, consciousness, therapy, repressed memories or sexual thoughts, and unconscious thoughts. In psychoanalysis therapy, people are encouraged to release repressed thoughts and desires from deep in their unconscious minds to help resolve conflicts. Individuals would lie on Freud’s couch and talk freely (free association) about dreams, desires, and childhood memories, from which Freud felt he could access their unconscious thoughts and desires.

Freud was also influenced by Darwin’s theories, emphasizing that humans and animals likely have similar basic wants, desires, and instincts. Freudian ideas and therapy techniques have fallen out of favor as they are not easily scientifically investigated for effectiveness (refer to “Why Do We Still Teach Freud If He Was So Wrong?”). Freudian theory, however, has influenced many psychologists and researchers over the past century. Freud was responsible for emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind, which plays a significant role in many aspects of psychology, including perception, motivation, learning, and memory. 

Several influential women also did pioneering work taking the psychoanalytic approach. Sigmund Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud (1885–1982), continued her father’s work and helped develop the field of child psychotherapy. Karen Horney (1885–1952) pushed back against many of Sigmund Freud’s emphases on repressed sexual drives and founded feminist psychology, ensuring that women were represented fairly in research and psychoanalytic theories.

The ideas of functionalism influenced the field of behaviorism The approach to psychology focused on recording and understanding observable behavior. This is most associated with Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. . As the name implies, behaviorism is about understanding how humans and other animals change with experience by observing and recording their behavior. Behaviorists often use animal models like dogs, rats, and pigeons to conduct well-controlled research with the idea that rules that govern behavior in animals can be applied to people. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) applied what he had discovered about the digestive system and his knowledge of the nervous system to investigate the rules and mechanisms of learning (refer to “Classical Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov”). Through his research, Pavlov found that by ringing a bell and giving a dog food, the dog would eventually learn to associate the sound of the bell with food and would salivate when it heard the bell, a connection made unconsciously in the brain. About the same time that Pavlov was developing his theories of learning in Russia, American psychologist Edward Thorndike (1874–1849) developed theories of how reward and punishment influenced learning and modified animal behavior. Pavlov and Thorndike developed generalized laws of learning that applied to most animals. 

Other behaviorists, such as John Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), focused more on observing and predicting behavior. According to Watson and Skinner, consciousness and mental functions are beyond our observation and violate empiricism: If we cannot see and record it, then it is out of bounds for good science. However, tangible rewards (food or praise) and punishments (shock or loud noises) shape observable behaviors in predictable ways. The rules discovered to shape the behavior in animals could be used in child development, language acquisition, training animals, and helping people with disabilities. Skinner called his type of behaviorism radical behaviorism, which focuses primarily on observing, recording, manipulating, and predicting behavior. B. F. Skinner and radical behaviorism are still very influential today. His work is used in the field of applied behavior analysis, which helps children with psychological disorders like autism (refer to Figure 1.4).

In the early part of the 20th century, there was strong pushback against behaviorism and the idea that animal learning and behavior were a product of stimuli, responses, and reinforcement. Perhaps animals think, anticipate, expect, and solve problems in their mind. This was known as the cognitive revolutionA movement in psychology that pushed back against behaviorism. It focused on the inner workings of the mind. . While both fields are interested in understanding and predicting the behavior of both human and nonhuman animals, behaviorism strives to understand how environmental experiences (stimuli, reinforcements) shape behavior, while cognitive psychology focuses on the inner workings of the mind. Both cognitive psychology and behaviorism play significant roles in learning, memory, decision making, and therapy.

Humanism is a term used in philosophy and psychology. As a philosophical movement, humanism flourished during the Renaissance and emphasized the individual’s leading a self-fulfilling life while still having responsibility for the greater good of society and other people. Humanistic psychology An approach to psychology about free will and maximizing human potential. is an approach developed in the mid-20th century as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalytic approaches (refer to “What Even Is "Self-Actualization"? Humanistic Theory”). In some ways, behaviorism took away the free will of the individual, and Freudian theories were too pessimistic, focusing on deep-seated and unresolved conflicts. But humanistic psychology has a more optimistic view of humans and assumes that we have greater control and agency over our behaviors and emotions. The humanistic approach focuses on the idea that we should always strive to grow and reach our full potential. Carl Rogers (1902–1987), Charlotte Bühler (1893–1974), and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) were some of the most influential humanistic psychologists. Rogers helped develop the person-centered approach to therapy and counseling. Maslow talked about the principles of human needs in our desire to be the best version of ourselves, what he called achieving self-actualization. 

The sociocultural approach An approach to psychology interested in how culture, family, and customs influence our behavior, perceptions, and emotions. examines how society, culture, families, customs, and ethnicity shape our thoughts, emotions, learning, behaviors, and development. This approach stresses interaction with other people and suggests social interaction affects how we learn and grow. Culture is a rather broad term but typically describes the shared values, customs, norms, beliefs, and acquired knowledge of a group. It may encompass food, religion, art, music, and laws. Because of the broad influences on the individual, the sociocultural approach overlaps with sociology and anthropology. This approach began with Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), who emphasized the family and culture as the driving forces for child development.

An evolutionary approach An approach to psychology interested in how our evolution shaped and influenced our behaviors and motivation. This overlaps with behavioral genetics. looks at psychology in terms of how evolution may have shaped emotions, motivations, perceptions, personalities, attitudes, and behaviors. It begins with Darwin’s theory of natural selection and how nature selects adaptive physical as well as behavioral characteristics. The evolutionary approach is interrelated with the study of genetics and the heritability of certain traits. Our ancient ancestors faced many challenges, and those who carried the genes for behavioral traits that were adaptive and helpful tended to, on average, survive better, reproduce, and pass on those genes (Cosmides & Tooby, 2013). Complex behaviors such as aggression, violence, cooperation, communication, over-eating, and anxiety can be better understood through genetics, adaptation, and evolution.

Positive psychology An approach to psychology that tries to understand the best parts of being human. It focuses on the aspects of our lives that bring us joy and subjective well-being. , like humanistic psychology, focuses on understanding the ways that bring us to our full potential while emphasizing what makes life joyful. While much of psychology and therapy is about treating psychological disorders, positive psychology attempts to create a way to scientifically investigate the good parts of being human and the happiness that life can bring (refer to “What Is Positive Psychology?”). Martin Seligman (1942–present) was the founder of positive psychology in the 1990s when he was the president of the American Psychological Association (APA). A positive psychologist might investigate how family, friends, physical exercise, meditation, and spiritual beliefs can increase subjective well-being.

A neuroscience An approach to psychology interested in biological and neurological influences of behavior and mental processes. or biological approach to psychology focuses on how the body and brain activity help explain complex behaviors and mental processes (refer to Figure 1.5). Someone taking this approach might look at how hormones affect emotions, how levels of certain brain chemicals inform us about depression or addiction, how cellular changes reflect learning, and how the activity within certain regions of the brain gives us a better understanding of visual perception. The approach overlaps with evolutionary psychology as they are both interested in the role that genetics plays in psychology. This is a relatively new approach to psychology but is growing rapidly with the tremendous advancements in neuroimaging technology, genomics, neurochemistry, and neurobiology.