1.2 Subfields in Psychology

Researchers in biopsychology This is the study of the biological basis of behavior, often involving research in neuroscience and genetics.  are interested in the biological basis of behavior, which is itself a broad topic with many subdisciplines. A biopsychologist might be interested in the role different brain structures play in behavior and mental functions (refer to “fMRI and the BOLD Signal”), such as how the hippocampus is necessary for short-term memory or how the amygdala functions in emotions. Other researchers might study the role that neurochemicals like dopamine or serotonin have in addiction. A rapidly growing subfield in biopsychology is behavioral genetics, which studies how DNA and genes influence extremely complex aspects of our psychology, such as risk-taking, personality, psychological disorders, and even spirituality. Biopsychologists mostly take a reductionist approach to psychology and use human and nonhuman animals in their research. We look more deeply at biopsychology and behavioral genetics in Chapter 2 “Neuroscience” and Chapter 3 “Behavioral Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology”.

Research in learning This is the study of how humans and other animals change their behavior with experiences. This is a reductionistic approach that often uses animal models. , also considered a reductionist area of psychology, often uses animal models like mice, rats, pigeons, and honeybees in well-controlled laboratory experiments to better understand the basic rules of how animals and people learn (refer to Figure 1.7). This research follows the work of behaviorists like Pavlov and Skinner. Research and methods in learning are also used to study short-term and long-term memory, child development, drug addiction, animal training, and biopsychology. For example, Eric Kandel received a Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2000 for his research on the cellular changes that occur during learning, which he discovered using a sea slug. We discuss research methods and theories of learning in Chapter 5 “Senses and Perception”. 

Cognitive psychology This is a broad field interested in learning, memory, language, perception, and attention. is a broad subdiscipline in psychology that overlaps with other fields. Someone in the field of learning might be interested in researching memories that are formed at the unconscious level, while a cognitive psychologist tends to focus on researching memories that are brought to our awareness. A cognitive psychologist might study language, aspects of perception, decision making, reasoning, intelligence, and the nature of consciousness. There are researchers who are specifically interested in animal cognition, such as tool use in chimpanzees or crows, animal communication, and animal intelligence (refer to Figure 1.8). Cognitive neuroscience is a rapidly growing field interested in the biology and neuroscience of complex cognitive processes. Cognitive psychology has both reductionistic and holistic approaches. We discuss cognitive psychology in Chapter 7 “Motivation and Emotions” and Chapter 8 “Cognitive Psychology and Memory”.

Developmental psychologists The study of the changes one experiences from the womb to late adulthood. are interested in the changes we experience during our growth from the womb to late adulthood. As you can imagine, this covers a great deal. This might overlap with biopsychology and genetics as researchers investigate how the nervous system grows and expands during the first few years of life. In Chapter 9 “Intelligence, Language, Judgment, and Decision Making”, we discuss theories and ideas about moral development and language acquisition. Although developmental psychology often emphasizes the stages that we go through in our first few years, this field is interested in our entire lifespan, from sensation-seeking and risk taking in adolescence to staving off cognitive decline in our eighties. While developmental psychology may employ reductionistic methods in research, it often takes a holistic approach when looking at all the factors that affect the developing person.

Courses in human sexuality The study of human romantic relationships, sexual motivation and behavior, gender, and sexual orientation. are often taught in a psychology department. The study of human sexuality is an intermix of just about all the subfields discussed so far. Some researchers in human sexuality might be interested in how certain hormones affect attraction and affection. Others might take an evolutionary approach and ask questions about the differences between men and women in preferences for long-term or short-term relationships. There is also the study of the LGBTQIA+ community and how views on marriage inequality and transgender rights have evolved over the past 20 years and continue to evolve (refer to Figure 1.9). There is also the scientific study of love—how it’s formed and how it lasts and changes throughout our lives. We look at some of the research on sex and love in Chapter 10 “Development and Lifespan”.

Are you the life of the party, gregarious and outgoing, or would you rather be at home alone, curled up with a good book or binge watching a show about the British empire on Netflix? Do you easily take charge during a stressful situation, or do you tend to get a bit flustered? Personality psychology The study of individual characteristics and traits—what makes people unique. is the study of the characteristics that make a person unique. Personality is a rather complex construct and involves the way people think, emotional regulation, social interactions, values, attitudes, and self-perception. Like most aspects of being human, one’s personality is an interplay between our genes (nature) and our experiences and socialization (nurture). In hopes of categorizing different personality types, several assessment surveys have been created, which we evaluate in Chapter 12 “Social Psychology”. Personality psychology also has strong connections with other subdisciplines, like developmental psychology, behavioral genetics, biopsychology, and health psychology and treatment. 

Social psychology The study of how behaviors, thoughts, and emotions are shaped by other people. is about how behaviors, thoughts, and emotions are affected by other people. Do you ever feel a certain strength or boldness when you’re with a group of friends? Have you ever felt persuaded to act in a way that went against your better judgment? Great things can happen when people work together to solve problems. However, some problems come with the social influence that can lead to cults, racist acts, prejudices, and polarization within society. The influence of others is no more evident than on social media when like-minded people join forces to tackle big issues like climate change or are persuaded to act in some way by false or misleading information. Social psychology often takes a holistic view of people's complex interactions within societies. We thoroughly examine how we affect and are affected by others in Chapter 11 “Sex, Gender, and Love”. 

Cultural psychology The study of how a person’s ethnic identity, race, language, culture, and traditions affect behavior and mental processes. studies the unique contribution that a person’s ethnic identity, race, language, and culture have on different aspects of behavior and mental processes. Does your family have certain traditions linked to your culture, ethnicity, or religion? Do these traditions shape your thoughts, emotions, feelings, and perceptions about yourself and others? Researchers in this field might focus on issues around immigration, acculturation, discrimination, and cultural or religious practices. Cultural psychology has a great deal of overlap with anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. Cultural psychology takes more of a holistic approach to psychology. We’ll touch on aspects of cultural psychology in several chapters in this textbook.

Psychopathology The study of psychological disorders.   is the study of psychological problems and disorders. Courses that cover this topic often refer to it as abnormal psychology, but this term has fallen out of favor for some because what classifies as a “normal” person is not easily defined (Hunkins, 2021). Psychopathology can be a rather broad subdiscipline and is studied by clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, neurologists, and neuroscientists. Researchers may look at the unusual patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that accompany mental health issues such as schizophrenia, depression, or anxiety disorders. We look at symptoms, causes, and treatment for psychological disorders in Chapter 13 “Personality” and Chapter 14 “Psychological Disorders”. This research might be used to understand and create more effective treatments for psychological disorders, so psychologists may use both basic and applied approaches. Researchers interested in psychopathology might also research criminality, violence, or aggression. Others might look at behaviors and thought processes that are atypical or unique but not considered a psychological disorder, such as people with exceptional intelligence. Psychopathology is often intertwined with behavioral genetics, biopsychology, theories of personality, and social psychology.

Health psychologyA subfield in psychology interested in how our thoughts and behaviors influence health care, medicine, illness, and well-being. This subfield is often interested in stress-related health problems.  is the study of how our thoughts and behaviors influence health care, medicine, illness, and well-being. Researchers in the field often look at diet, exercise, and relaxation. A primary focus is on the negative effects of persistent or chronic stress, as well as ways to reduce or cope with stress-related problems. While health psychology has a strong research component, it is also becoming a more significant part of applied psychology to help people live longer, healthier, and happier lives. We’ll be learning more about health psychology in Chapter 15 “Treatments for Psychological Disorders”. 

Applied psychology is extremely important for helping to improve the mental and physical health of individuals. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), from August 2020 to February 2021, the percentage of adults with symptoms of anxiety or a depressive disorder increased from 36 percent to 41 percent, with the increase likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Jia, 2021). Most health-related problems, including heart disease, cancer, digestive problems, and sexual dysfunctions, are related to difficulty managing stress. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), an estimated 21 million American adults had at least one major depressive episode (clinical depression) in the past year, which is about 8.4 percent of the population (NIMH.NIH.gov). Also, according to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (SAMHSA, 2020), about 20 million American adults (aged twelve and older) battled some form of drug addiction during this time. I often tell the students in my courses that if they plan to go into an applied aspect of psychology, they can likely do more to improve the physical health of their clients than the person’s primary care physician. 

Clinical psychology An applied approach to psychology where scientific evidence and practice are used in developing treatment to improve a person’s mental health or to treat psychological disorders. integrates scientific evidence and practice into better ways of helping people with psychological problems or dysfunctions. A clinical psychologist might help people with depression and anxiety or those dealing with trauma and grief. Clinical psychologists are guided by well-established ways of assessing individuals and prescribing the best course of treatment. They focus on evidence-based practices, which are psychotherapy techniques with experimental support that benefit clients (refer to Figure 1.10). Clinical psychologists often earn a PhD and work in private practice, hospitals, or other specialized care facilities or take a position at a university. All states require that clinical psychologists log many hours of supervised practice and pass a state exam. Many clinical psychologists are also highly involved in research on clinical practices. Clinical psychologists are not licensed to prescribe medication in all but five U.S. states, but they often work closely with a psychiatrist who can (Cherry, 2020).

Psychiatry A subspecialty in medicine interested in understanding and treating neuropsychiatric disorders. Psychiatrists earn an MD and can prescribe psychoactive medication in their treatment. and clinical psychology have much in common. People in both fields are trained in the scientific and evidence-based practices of working with people who are struggling with psychological disorders. The stereotype of the psychiatrist with a patient on their couch evaluating repressed sexual desires or dysfunctions hidden in double entendre is very uncommon (refer to “Psychiatrist in the Renaissance”). However, a psychiatrist earns a medical degree (MD) and typically does rotations learning other forms of medicine before specializing in psychiatry. Psychiatrists can prescribe medication and often work in hospitals or private practice, working with diverse clients with various psychological disorders. They can also work with neurologists to help people with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. 

Psychological counselors A therapist who is trained to provide mental health services. and therapists also play a vital role in helping people. There are several subspecialties in counseling, including those that focus on marriage and family issues, substance abuse, rehabilitation, mental health, and education. To be a licensed counselor requires a master’s degree, which takes about two years and provides the student with the opportunity to get hands-on experience in the field. As with clinical psychologists, counselors and therapists must get many supervised hours working with people and pass a licensing exam. Counselors and therapists typically do not conduct research, but there are exceptions.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) A method of using principles of learning and behavioral modification to help improve behaviors, especially with children on the autism spectrum. is a fast-growing area of applied psychology. ABA uses the principles of learning and behavior modification developed by radical behaviorists such as B. F. Skinner to help shape and modify the behavior of children with psychological disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder. However, ABA training can also be used in other settings, such as animal training. ABA training typically involves a two-year master’s degree, many hours of hands-on experience, and board certification. Since approximately one in 44 children is diagnosed to be somewhere on the autism spectrum, the services of ABA-trained staff are in high demand (CDC, 2021).

A school psychologistSomeone who receives an Eds degree and is trained to evaluate and develop a course of action for students with learning disabilities and behavioral problems., or educational specialist (EdS), must complete several years of post-graduate education. These three-year programs require the completion of specific courses, specialized training, and workplace experience within the school system. An EdS degree is considered to be somewhere between a master’s and a doctorate; however, one can also earn a PhD in school psychology. School psychologists work in K–12 education to evaluate students with learning disabilities or behavioral problems. They work with teachers, students, and caregivers to facilitate the best learning environment for students.

Industrial and organizational (IO) psychology An applied field in psychology that works to develop ways to improve people’s working environment. is a relatively new subdiscipline in psychology. This field is concerned with the science of understanding human behavior in the work environment (refer to Figure 1.11). An IO psychologist can have many areas of interest, including how offices are designed to maximize employee interaction and cooperation, setting up motivation plans, or suggesting equipment design to maximize the safety and health of employees (Chmiel, 2008). An IO psychologist might also study ergonomics in a workplace—the comfort and usability of factory equipment, computer–human interface, and other human factors that contribute to productivity and employee satisfaction.